Emerging and Underutilized Technologies and Practices

Ammonia: Green Ammonia.  Not just a stinky-smelling household cleaning product any more.  Ammonia has also been widely used as a fertilizer for the last century.  Now, using renewable energy, and a new method for making ammonia, researchers and entrepreneurs believe green ammonia can become a significant clean fuel source for generating electricity and powering ships. “From Fertilizer to Fuel: Can Green Ammonia Be a Climate Fix?”  www.e360.yale.edu  1/20/22.  “Ammonia – a Renewable Fuel Made From Sun, Air, and Water – Could Power the Globe Without Carbon”.  www.science.org  7/12/18. This article from science.org concerns an Australian fuel cell that can convert renewable electricity into carbon-free ammonia fuel.  Yara Clean Ammonia in Norway is working to develop clean ammonia as a fuel in the shipping and food production industries. www.yara.com/yara-clean-ammonia/

Critics of solar and wind power are correct in that each is an intermittent source of power.  But in more recent years the emphasis has been on batteries and other forms of energy storage to enable either of these two forms of green energy to carry the whole load.  The current standard is the lithium-ion battery.  But l.i. batteries have several issues that call for the world to look for better alternatives.  L.I. batteries can overheat and explode if charged too rapidly.  They have a limited number of charge-recharge cycles. They are flammable.  Extracting the required cobalt from mines, and processing the raw materials into l.i. batteries is a highly water- and energy-intensive process. Cobalt mining all too often takes place under unsafe conditions, and using child labor.  70% of the known cobalt reserves are in one 3rd-world country – the Democratic Republic of the Congo, or DRC.  76% of l.i. batteries are produced by one country – China.

Emerging Battery and Energy Storage Technologies (Alphabetically)

Aluminum-sulfur battery.  Donald Sadoway’s battery design based on aluminum, sulfur and  molten salt. Known as the Avanti battery.  “Aluminum-sulfur Battery Promises Low Cost Energy Storage”. www.cleantechnica.com 8/26/22.  “Local Researchers Are Aiming to Create the Perfect Battery”.  www.bostonglobe.com 9/26/22.  The article concerns MIT’s Donald Sadoway and his Avanti battery.

Battery Storage in General.  “Energy Storage is Important to Creating Affordable, Reliable, Deeply Decarbonized Electricity Systems”.  www.pvbuzz.com 5/17/22.  “How Energy Storage Policies Can Allow Grids to Run on Renewables”. www.climate-xchange.org 8/26/22.  “Storage Technology: Five New Ways to Store Energy”.  www.strive2thrive.earth  11/15/21.

Brick & Rock Batteries.  Learn “How a Brick & Rock Battery is Changing Energy Storage”.  www.youtube.com  From Matt Ferrell’s “Undecided” Channel.

Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES).  During periods of excess power, ambient air or another gas is compressed and stored under pressure in an underground cavern or container.  When electricity is required, the pressurized air is heated and expanded in an expansion turbine driving a generator for power production.  www.energystorage.org/why-energy-storage/technologies/compressed-air-energy-storage-caes/   A company called Hydrostor in Toronto has developed what it calls Advanced Compressed Air Energy Storage (A-CAES).  www.hydrostor.ca  The McIntosh Power Plant in Alabama uses CAES as its storage technology, as does the Huntorf Plant in Germany, which dates from 1978.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Battery.  “Energy Dome Launches World’s First CO2 Battery for Long-duration Storage of Wind and Solar Power”. www.euronews.com 9/6/22.  “CO2 Battery – Long Duration Storage/Energy Dome”. www.youtube.com  “Energy Dome Introduces its Carbon Dioxide Energy Storage System on Sardinia”. www.cleantechnica.com 6/10/22. Describes its 10-hour duration, and how it is made from off-the-shelf parts and equipment.

Embedded Batteries.  Batteries embedded into structural materials – buildings, automobiles, etc.  “Batteries of the Future are Weightless and Invisible”.  www.wired.com 11/6/20. 

Flow Batteries.  Flow batteries work through the reaction that happens when two specialized liquids flow adjacent to each other, separated only by a thin membrane.  Scaling is simply a matter of building larger tanks to keep the liquids apart until needed.  Learn about Lockheed-Martin’s Grid Star Flow long-duration energy storage technology: www.lockheedmartin.com .  Also: “ESS Makes 12+ Hour Flow Battery for Sustainable Energy Storage”. www.cleantechnica.com 2/11/21. “Hybrid Membrane Edges Flow Batteries Toward Grid-scale Energy Storage”. www.newatlas.com 11/11/21.  “ESS Inks Largest-ever US Flow Battery Purchase With Sacramento Utility”. www.canarymedia.com 9/27/22.  And learn about grid-scale energy storage at a San Diego Gas & Electric substation: “Microgrid Project Using Vanadium Redox Flow Battery”. www.pv-magazine-australia.com .  While there are some variations among flow batteries, they generally share similar advantages over lithium-ion batteries.  They have longer life.  They provide a much longer output duration, up to 3 times that of l.i. batteries.  They are non-flammable, non-toxic, and have no explosion risk. Unlimited cycle life and no capacity degradation over an expected 25-year operating life.  L.I. batteries typically provide only about 7000 cycles during an expected lifetime of from 7 to 10 years.  Flow batteries have a  greater tolerance to a wide range of ambient temperatures, between 14F up to 140F.  Flow batteries’ cost of ownership is about 40% less than with lithium-ion batteries.

Flywheel Energy Storage (FES).  FES works by accelerating a rotor – the flywheel – to a very high speed and maintaining the energy in the system as rotational or kinetic energy.  When energy is needed, the spinning force drives a device similar to a turbine to produce electricity, slowing the wheel’s rate of rotation. www.energystorage.org/why-energy-storage/technologies/mechanical-energy-storage/   Read the California Energy Commission Report of the subject: “Flywheel Systems for Utility Scale Energy Storage”.  January 2019.    Companies offering this technology include: Beacon Power www.beaconpower.com; Power-Thru www.power-thru.com; Vycon Energy www.vyconenergy.com; and Omnes Energy www.omnesenergy.com.  Some key advantages of FES are low cost, low maintenance, long life (up to 175,000 full depth discharge cycles), and negligible to no environmental impact.  Flywheels can bridge the gap between short-term ride-through power and long-term energy storage.  Very short recharge time.  Operates at between 85 – 90% efficiency. 

Gravity-based Energy Storage. Gravity storage is raising something heavy up to a certain level, when energy is cheap or not in great demand, or by intermittent green energy sources, such as solar or wind, and then letting the force of gravity bring that heavy something back to ground level, generating electricity in the process.  One of the oldest methods of using gravity in this way is pumped storage.  Water is pumped up to a higher level; then, when power is needed, or has greater value, the water is released to flow through a turbine, generating electricity in the process.  A utility-scale version of pumped storage is underway in Switzerland.  This 1 gigawatt Swiss pumped storage “battery” operates on the height difference between two lakes.  At full buildout it will be able to supply all the electricity needs of one million Swiss homes. See “Could This Be the Most Extreme Power Plant in the World?”  at www.ge.com 6/6/16.  There are numerous pumped storage facilities around the U.S.: the 400MW Gordon Butte project in Montana; the 1300MW Eagle Mountain project in California; and the 800MW Dominion Energy project in Virginia.  Another way of doing this, without water, is with stacked concrete blocks. Heavy concrete blocks are raised up to a certain level, then lowered, running a generator, when power is needed.  Read “India’s Largest Power Company Relies on Energy Vault”. And visit www.energyvault.com .  Gravity can also be used in high-rise buildings in a manner similar to how regenerative braking recharges the battery in hybrid and electric vehicles.  Read “Turning High-rise Buildings Into Batteries”. www.cleantechnica.com/2022/06/03/turning-high-rise-buildings-into-batteries/  and www.newatlas.com/energy/lift-energy-skyscraper-batteries/ 3/31/22. Companies involved in this technology include www.gravitricity.com , www.energyvault.com , and www.aresnorthamerica.com .  The advantages of using gravity storage are many: gravity is a force found everywhere on earth, at all times of day and throughout every season.  The pumped hydro version of gravity storage is the world-wide most common form in existence, and has been utilized for about a century. During periods of low demand, and usually, lower cost, the upper portion of the device is recharged, with either conventionally-generated power or with available renewables.  Gravity-powered storage plants can respond to large electrical load changes within seconds. They are cheap to build and to operate, and are virtually indestructible.   With regard to the still-evolving raised block gravity storage systems, read www.helena.org/projects/energy-vault   Also: “Gravity Batteries: Any Nation Can Do It at Scale Using Rocks”. 7/27/22. www.energypost.eu   Also “Gravitricity Battery Generates First Power at Edinburgh Site”. 4/21/21. www.bbc.com  www.gravitricity.com 

Iron-air Batteries.  Form Energy (www.formenergy.com)  is one of many companies seeking to develop a battery that is free of the many limitations and hazards of lithium-ion batteries.  It has developed a battery which operates on iron and air.  Iron is widely available around the world, as is, of course, air.  A recent article in Canary Media covers the basics of iron-air batteries quite nicely: “Form Energy Wins $450M to Rust Iron for Multiday Energy Storage”.  www.canarymedia.com . 10/4/22.  The article describes how the company’s battery will store energy so cheaply that a power plant can deliver emissions-free energy (if the source was renewable, carbon-free energy) around the clock for days on end.  Form Energy is described as graduating out of the venture capital space and is now drawing growth equity money from some massive financial organizations, including TPG Rise Climate, Singapore’s GIC, and the Pension Plan Investment Board of Canada. Also have a look at: “Form Energy to Build Novel Iron Batteries in West Virginia Steel Town”.   www.canarymedia.com  10/22/22.  Of note: Form Energy’s CEO is Mateo Jaramillo, who built Tesla’s energy storage business before joining forces with MIT battery expert Yet-Ming-Chiang. More on the promise of iron-air batteries: “Four Ways to Store Sunlight”. www.steelforfuel.substack.com/p/four-ways-to-store-sunlight   And “Enabling a True 24/7 Carbon-Free Resource Portfolio For Great River Energy With Multi-Day Storage. www.formenergy.com 

Liquid Air Energy Storage (LAES) also known as Cryogenic Energy Storage (CES).  LAES/CES uses electricity to cool air until it liquifies, stores the liquid air in a tank, brings the liquid air back to a gaseous state – by exposure either to ambient air or with waste heat from an industrial process – and uses that gas to turn a turbine and generate electricity.  Plants of this type can provide large-scale, long-duration energy storage, with hundreds of megawatts of output.  They can use industrial waste heat and cold from widely found sources such as thermal generation plants, steel mills, and LNG terminals.  LAES/CES uses existing and mature components with proven long lifetimes, performance, and O&M costs.  See “Liquid Air Energy Storage (LAES)” at www.energystorage.org .  The largest liquid air battery built so far, and in practical use, is located near Manchester, England UK.  Read about it at “Construction Begins on World’s Biggest Liquid Air Battery” at www.theguardian.com 6/18/20.  Also “Grid Battery Using Regular Old Ambient Air”. www.hackaday.com 7/24/20.

Liquid Metal Batteries. (known as the Ambri battery)  Like the aluminum-sulfur (Avanti) battery described above, the Ambri battery is the result of research carried out by MIT battery whiz Donald Sadoway. His Ambri battery utilizes a liquid calcium alloy anode, molten salt electrolyte, and a cathode made of solid particles of antimony.  When the cell is heated to 500C (932F), the metal and salt melt, creating a liquid metal battery.  This non-flow battery has a claimed 20-year life expectancy.  Because of the weight of liquid metal batteries (significantly greater than lithium-ion) they are targeted at stationary battery storage markets.  For a full description of an early practical application of Prof. Sadoway’s Ambri battery, read: “TerraScale to Deploy Ambri Liquid Metal Battery at Energos Reno Project”. www.datacenterdynamics.com 11/27/20.  Terrascale has also signed an agreement to provide Ambri batteries for Earth & Wire in South Africa.  Keep up with the rapidly expanding adoption of this technology at www.ambri.com/news/ .

Long-Term Battery Storage at Scale.  “Solving the Clean Energy and Climate Justice Puzzle”.  “How Multi-Day Energy Storage Can Cost-Effectively Replace Long-Running Peakers”.  From Form Energy. www.formenergy.com 

Manganese & Aluminum Batteries.  Batteries without lithium, cobalt, or nickel from Alsym Energy, Woburn MA. Alsym has developed a process, about which it says very little on its website, to make large-size rechargeable batteries that deliver the performance of lithium-ion at half the price.  The company is selling them to many ocean shipping companies and to one automaker.  “Alsym Energy Emerges From Stealth Mode”  www.pv-magazine-usa.com 6/15/22.  Alsym does say that its team is working to ensure that their batteries not only meet performance expectations at reduced cost, but also avoid most of the supply chain challenges associated with lithium-ion technologies. www.cleantechnica.com/2022/06/16/alsym-energy-debuts-low-cost-water-based-batteries/  6/16/22.  Also see: “New Water-based Battery”. www.cleantechnica.com 6/12/22.

Oxygen-Ion Batteries. “New Batteries That Are Safer, Cleaner, and Last Longer Than Lithium-Ion”.  5/14/23. www.thecooldown.com  These are regenerative oxygen-ion batteries.  Developed at the Vienna University of Technology.  Also: “New Invention: The Oxygen-Ion Battery”. 3/22/23.  www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/983590 

Peaker Plants. Peaker plants, usually powered by fossil fuels, are activated onto the grid at times when demand is greatest, and without which, blackouts might occur.  Peaker plants everywhere, however, are under siege as battery power of one sort or another is proving to be both greener and cheaper.  The green energy provisions of the 2022 Inflation Reduction Act are strong incentives to deactivate peaker plants and to substitute energy storage instead.  “The Drive to Replace Summer-only ‘Peaker’ Power Plants”. www.wired.com. 5/19/220. And “Report: These Rarely Used, Dirty Power Plants Could Be Cheaply Replaced by Batteries”. www.grist.org  6/11/20. 

Sand Storage.  More often referred to as Hot Sand Storage.  Sand is found everywhere.  It is dirt- (sand-) cheap. It doesn’t melt, off-gas, or create any kind of toxin or health danger. It is non-flammable.  Its temperature can be raised to very high levels without incurring a phase change, as occurs with the raising of the temperature of water above the boiling point. It is highly self-insulating, and at large volumes, loses thermal energy quite slowly.  As a result of these characteristics, hot sand is finding its way in many energy storage situations.  In Finland, a company called Polar Night Energy is showing how well hot sand, stored in silos, works in a Finnish city’s district heating system. “First Commercial Sand-based Thermal Energy Storage is in Operation”. www.renewableenergymagazine.com 7/7/22. Or watch the video – “Dirt Simple Energy Storage” at www.youtube.com/watch?v=tm7spMGOch8  “An Italian Company is Turning Hot Sand Into Clean Energy” www.magaldi.com/en/products-solutions/csp-concentrating-solar-power   All components are universally available, inexpensive, completely recyclable, eco-compatible, and highly reliable over time.  The 600C hot sand produces steam which generates electricity.  Want to learn more?: “New Thermal Energy Storage Methods Using Hot Sand” at www.azocleantech.com  10/7/21. And “Using Hot Sand to Store Energy”. www.cleantechnica.com 8/31/21. And www.solarpaces.org/nrel-results-support-cheap-long-duration-energy-storage-in-hot-sand/  1/8/22.

Silicon.  SC555 is a new silicon-carbon composite that can improve the energy density and charging time of the lithium-ion batteries in everything from smartphones to EVs to earbuds.  Its fast-charging feature means that an EV could potentially be charged in 10 minutes. Porsche is an investor, and expects SC555 to power its EVs in 2024.  An invention of Group14. See www.group14.technology/en/ .  SC555 was selected by TIME Magazine for inclusion in its “Best Inventions 2022” edition.  Along the same lines: Silicon Anode Battery.  “New EV Battery Offers 50% More Energy Density Than Traditional Lithium-Ion Batteries”.  2/10/23. www.pv-magazine-australia.com  A rapid charge can power 80% of the battery’s capacity in 10 minutes. Can undergo 1000 charge cycles while retaining nearly 90% of its original capacity. The company is Ionblox. www.ionblox.com  Located in Fremont CA.

Sodium-ion Batteries. Sodium-ion batteries have many advantages over lithium-ion batteries, as explained in: “United Plans to Electrify Airport Operations With Sodium-ion Batteries”. www.canarymedia.com 11/30/22.  The batteries are made by Natron Energy, of Santa Clara CA. www.natron.energy  Natron states that its cells do not rely on rare earth materials like cobalt nor do they have a long, questionable supply chain like lithium.  Their battery materials are mainly aluminum, iron, manganese and sodium-ions.  Natron’s sodium-ion batteries have a high peak capacity, a wide temperature operating range, and the flexibility to scale quickly.  The batteries can cycle 50,000 times, recharge in 8 minutes, are UL-approved, and are not a fire hazard.

Thermal Energy Storage.  There are numerous ways for thermal energy to be stored and used directly as heat, converted to electricity in the grid that serves your community, or used in individual buildings or complexes of buildings.  Some of these are as follows: “Thermal Batteries Could Efficiently Store Wind and Solar Power in a Renewable Grid”. www.science.org 4/13/22.  “Thermophotovoltaic Efficiency of 40%”. www.nature.com 4/13/22. “A Better Heat Engine”. www.technologyreview.com 6/29/22. “Vattenfall Starts to Fill Up 200MW Thermal Storage Tower in Berlin”. www.energy-storage.news 7/4/22.  “A Battery For the Grid That Stores Electricity by Heating Refractory Materials”. www.solarimpulse.com/solutions-explorer/stolect-carnot-battery  Thermophotovoltaics/Thermal Battery Corporation. www.thermalbattery.com  “Capturing Light From Heat at Record 40% Efficiency, NREL Makes Big Strides in Thermophotovoltaics”. www.cleantechnica.com 5/21/22.  “Seasonal Underground Thermal Energy Storage”. www.hydrosolar.ca  “5 Reasons Why Thermal Storage May Finally Be Set to Take Off”. www.canarymedia.com 1/23/23.

Zinc Aqueous Hybrid Cathode Battery Storage Systems. “EOS Got US $258 Million Orders for its Zinc Battery Storage in Q2 2022”.  www.energy-storage.news  Also, at the EOS website: “EOS Cube” www.eose.com 

Zinc Batteries. “Scientists Led By an Oregon State University Researcher Have Developed a New Electrolyte That Raises the Efficiency of the Zinc Metal Anode in Zinc Batteries to Nearly 100%”.  3/26/23. www.oregonstate.edu  This achievement is considered a breakthrough on the way to an alternative to lithium-ion batteries for large-scale energy storage. 

3D-Printed Batteries.  “3D-Printed Solid-State Battery”. 2/16/23. www.cleantechnica.com  A company called Sakuu has announced that it has successfully 3D-printed solid-state batteries in custom shapes that include cooling channels.  With these batteries having twice the energy density, and 30% less weight than existing Li-ion cells, they have a great ability for use in energy storage in residential and industrial applications. 

Biochar. Biochar is a carbon-rich material that is made from biomass through a thermochemical process known as pyrolysis.  The term “gasification” is sometimes used as well.  “What is Biochar and How is it Made”?. www.rit.edu . Biochar is found to be beneficial for composting, since it reduces GHG emissions and prevents the loss of nutrients in the compost material.  During the pyrolysis process the organic material is converted into biochar, a stable form of carbon that can’t easily escape into the atmosphere. The energy or heat created during pyrolysis can be captured and used as a form of clean energy.  The pyrolysis/gasification process may help sequester a billion tons of carbon annually and hold it in the soil for thousands of years.  The clean and renewable energy that is produced as a byproduct can be used as an alternative to burning fossil fuels.  “What is Biochar?” 5/16/18. www.regenerationinternational.org/2018/05/16/what-is-biochar/  And “Producers and Researchers Agree, Scale Up of a Sustainable Biochar Industry is Critical to Meet Climate Targets and Build Agricultural Resilience and Soil Health”.  www.attra.ncat.org 12/5/22.

Biogas.  Biogas is a combustible gaseous fuel that is collected from the microbial degradation of organic matter in anaerobic conditions.  The components of biogas are usually waste products from homes, municipal separate organics collections (if any), farms, food production facilities, water treatment plants, etc.  It’s “all natural”, so that’s good, right?  Not like those carbon-loaded fossil fuels.  Well, not exactly.  To quote a famous Meryl Streep movie line, “it’s complicated”. Since this website is more of a reference and not a blog, instead of trying to explain it all, we will refer you here to a few knowledgeably written articles that will help you make sense of biogas, and where and when to be a supporter of its use. “Is Biogas a Green Energy Source”. www.worldwildlife.org/blogs/sustainability-works/posts/is-biogas-a-green-energy-source  .  “What is Biogas? Is it Sustainable?” www.treehugger.com/what-is-biogas-6828434  “The Production and Use of Waste-derived Renewable Natural Gas as a Climate Strategy”. www.wri.org 4/25/18.  And “Not All Biogas is Created Equal”. www.edf.org 4/15/19. At small scale there is also something called Modular Anaerobic Digestion, from SEAB Energy in the UK. SEAB makes a small-scale modular container called the Flexibuster for transforming food and other organic waste into low-carbon energy and saleable fertilizer.  Waste disposal costs, and, according to the manufacturer, methane emissions are avoided. www.seabenergy.com/products/mb400/.  In the U.S. contact www.foodwastexperts.com

Biomass Briquettes.  Made from agricultural residues – mostly in developing countries – and used for a wide variety of tasks, ranging from thermal power generation at grid scale to cooking in individual homes. There doesn’t seem to be much in the way of credible technical information available online as to exactly how “green” a fuel biomass briquettes actually are.  They are normally touted as a cleaner replacement for fossil fuels, and a substitute for just burning agricultural waste.  They are probably somewhere in the middle third of the climate-neutral range. “BALCO Pushes the Use of Green Fuel With Biomass Briquettes” (in India). www.smartcitiescouncil.com 7/22/22.  Also have a look at “Biomass Briquettes” at www.wikipedia.org .

Biomimicry.  Biomimicry is the design and engineering of products and systems modelled on organisms and ecosystems.  This approach allows us to do more with fewer resources by building systems that learn, adapt, self-heal and evolve.  It involves a complete rethinking of the types of materials we use and the way we put them together.  Architects, for example, could collaborate with scientists to develop materials that mimic natural climate-regulating systems on earth.  “Biomimicry Could Lead to Cities That ‘Deliver Net Benefits’ in the Fight Against Climate Change”.  www.dezeen.com . 2/8/21.

BioSequestration (BS)  BS involves the net removal of CO2 from the atmosphere by plants and microorganisms and its storage in vegetative biomass and in soils.  In addition to soil itself, this includes grasslands, forests, and peat. BS sequesters large volumes of carbon at low cost and without technical complexity; protects and improves soils, water resources, habitat, and biodiversity; can generate rural income; and promotes more sustainable agriculture and forestry practices. “Carbon Sequestration” + “Biological Sequestration” www.climatechangeconnection.org . “Biosequestration”. www.wiktionary.org . “Co-Designing Urban Carbon Sink Parks: Case Carbon Lane in Helsinki”. www.frontiersin.org . “City Trees and Soil Are Sucking More Carbon Out of the Atmosphere” . www.bu.edu

Blue Energy.  Depending upon whom you ask, you will get a range of answers if you ask “What is Blue Energy?”  The answers will range from the very specific to the quite broad.  A specific response to the question is that Blue Energy is what results from the interaction at the point fresh water rivers roll into the salty ocean.  Electricity can be harvested in this situation but the science is still in its infancy.  Blue Energy can also be the range of ways in which the ocean can be a source of green renewable energy, including the one just mentioned where fresh and salt water mix, plus wave energy, tidal power, power from ocean currents, and a few others.  We will add here power from seaweed, although that could be re-assigned to a category dealing with power obtained from agricultural products.  Re. the mixing of fresh and salt water, read: “Blue Energy: Can We Get All Our Future Energy from Salt Water?” www.medium.com 1/29/19. And “Patent-pending Tech Extracts Energy From Fresh, Salt Water”. www.hawaii.edu. 2/2/21. Wave Energy: “Does Wave Energy Have a Role to Play in a Net-zero Future?” www.renewableenergyworld.com 7/15/22. And “Oscilla Power’s Triton Wave Energy Converter” . www.oscillapower.com . Wave Energy Hybrid with Offshore Wind: “Wave Energy Converter Passes First Test”. www.cleantechnica.com 9/5/22. “The Triton WEC is a floating electric generator that extracts energy from ocean waves”. www.designboom.com The Triton Wave Energy Converter (WEC) was selected by TIME Magazine for inclusion in its “Best Inventions 2022” edition.  Tidal Power: “Rance, France Tidal Power Station”. www.wikipedia.org  And “Tidal Giants – the World’s Five Biggest Tidal Power Plants”. www.power-technology.com 4/10/14.  Power from Gulf Stream Turbines: “Florida Company Develops Way to Generate Power by Harnessing the Gulf Stream”. www.forbes.com Also: “Ocean Based Perpetual Energy Generates Power from the Gulf Stream”. www.floridatrend.com 8/26/20.  Seaweed Power: “Could our Energy Come From Giant Seaweed Farms in the Ocean?”  www.scientificamerican.com 3/16/20.

Building Automation Systems (BAS). A building automation system equips buildings with sensors that scan and adjust systems, such as lighting, for maximum efficiency, particularly as regards energy consumption.  “What is a Building Automation System?” www.gatewaymechanical.ca

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS).  CCS is likely to be one of the thorniest and most divisive issues that someone working to reduce climate change is going to encounter.  CCS: you either love it, or at least support it, or you hate it.  CCS involves the use of equipment and processes to remove carbon from where it is emerging from the use of fossil fuels or bio fuels, up to the level of trying to remove it from the atmosphere.  Techniques to try and suck it from the air are generally referred to as geoengineering.  At the other (small-scale) end of the technology are individual CCS units sized to remove carbon during the operation of a building’s heating and HVAC system.  To get a look at what is operational at the scale of individual buildings, take a look at the website of a company called CARBiNX – www.carbinx.com. Their website states that their units capture carbon dioxide from a building’s heating equipment and permanently sequesters the carbon as potassium carbonate.  To view what is involved with CCS at the macroscale – geoengineering – some of the following sources of information should be useful: “What is Geoengineering – And Why Should You Care?” www.technology.com 8/9/19.  “Direct Air Capture is Going to Be One of the Pillars of Decarbonization”. www.carbonherald.com 11/11/22.  “Dimming the Sun to Cool the Planet is a Desperate Idea, Yet We’re Inching Toward It”. by Bill McKibbon, in the New Yorker Magazine 11/22/22. www.newyorker.com  And “A Breakout Year for Carbon Removal?” www.canarymedia.com 12/6/22.  In between these 2 extremes, the arguments rage on as to the wisdom of including CCS as a legitimate and practical means of cooling the planet.  Have a look at some of the following articles: “Why Carbon Capture and Storage Could Be the Game-changer the World Needs” www.weforum.org 3/22/19. “Slowing Climate Change Will Require Vastly More Carbon Capture, Study Says”. www.insideclimatenews.org 1/30/17. “What is Carbon Capture, Usage and Storage – and Can it Trap Emissions?”  www.theguardian.com 9/24/20. From the Sierra Club: www.sierraclub.org/sierra/who-s-afraid-carbon-capture-pipeline-co2-ccs and “World Cannot Meet Climate Targets Relying on Carbon Capture and Storage”. www.globalwitness.org 1/11/21. “Researchers Develop New Tool That Could Lead to More Efficient Ways to Capture Carbon” www.pvbuzz.com 3/19/22.  “Carbon Capture Takes Center Stage, But is its Promise an Illusion?”  www.insideclimatenews.org 3/9/22.

Digital Twins Technology (DTT).   A Digital Twin is a dynamic virtual copy of a physical asset, process, system or environment that looks like and behaves identically with its real-world counterpart. It ingests data and replicates processes so that possible performance outcomes, and issues that the real-world entity might undergo, can be predicted.  To begin to understand how this technology can play a role in dealing with climate change, here are some articles on the subject: “Can Digital Twins Drive a Climate Change Agenda?”. www.forbes.com 5/16/22.  “How to Decarbonize Cities Using Digital Twins”. www.eandt.theiet.org 7/15/22.  “Can Earth’s Digital Twins Help Us Navigate the Climate Crisis?”. www.spectrum.ieee.org/climate-models  “CarbonChain is Using AI to Determine the Emissions of the World’s Biggest Polluters”. www.techcrunch.com 8/21/20. The company – CarbonChain – claims to be so precise that it can calculate (via Digital Twins technology) exactly how much carbon is generated via all kinds of processes that end, for example, with the cup of coffee  on your desk – or a glass of imported wine. www.carbonchain.com

Disruptive Technology YouTube Channels.  Sifting through the endless YouTube channels that assert that they are informing the viewers of their videos of pure fact “Killer Greenhouse Gasses from Pluto!!”, we have found a couple of channels that are very helpful in finding new science and technologies that can play a role in advancing the use of forms of clean, renewable energy, or can decarbonize buildings in new and unusual ways.  One of these is “Disruptive Investing” – two guys who conduct real research and conduct great interviews; and the other is “Undecided With Matt Ferrell”.  Have a look at both.

District Heating (and Cooling) for the 21st Century (DH).  DH means the use of a central heating plant that provides a source of space heat, and maybe domestic hot water, for a complex of buildings, usually located in the downtown section of a mid-to large-size city.  For as long as 100 years or so, there have been many DH systems in western Europe, and some in the U.S.  All, in the beginning, were powered by either fossil fuels, usually coal, or by geothermal heat found close to the surface.  Many are still in existence, some still in active use, and many have been recently getting a second look as assets that could be brought nicely up to date with the use of renewable energy, ground-source heat pumps, or with reduced carbon fuels. “How Century-old ‘District Energy’ Networks Can Help Decarbonize Cities”. www.canarymedia.com 6/7/22.  “Decarbonizing Boston & Cambridge with eSteam”. www.vicinityenergy.us Vicinity Energy aims to convert Boston’s steam network to run on clean energy.  “Something Old, Something New – District Heating in the 21st Century”. www.atlasbuildingshub.com 5/16/22.

Electric Heavy-Duty Work Equipment.  www.california.org/equipmentcatalog/

Electricity From Air.  Electricity can be made from the humidity in air, in a controlled version of lightning striking out from a moisture-laden cloud in the sky.  This breakthrough in clean energy was announced in early 2023 by College of Engineering researchers at the University of Massachusetts. www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/adma.202300748  It is being referred to as the Air-Gen effect.  “Engineers at UMass Amherst Harvest Abundant Clean Energy From Thin Air” www.umass.edu  “Scientists Generate Electricity From Thin Air. Humidity Could Be a Boundless Source of Energy” 5/30/23.  www.usatoday.com  “Scientists Have Found a Way of Making Electricity From Thin Air” 5/26/23. www.euronews.com

Electrified Roads.  The growth of the EV market – in cars, trucks, buses, etc. – will only be as robust as the growth in the capability to charge these vehicles enroute from Point A to Point B. Here and there in the media are stories of people who tell their stories of the difficulties they experienced in their recent lengthy EV trip.  That may be about to change, if the people pushing for electrified roads have their way.  “The World’s First Electrified Road for Charging Vehicles Opens in Sweden”.  www.theguardian.com 4/12/18. A stretch of road outside Stockholm transfers energy from two tracks of rail in the road, recharging the batteries of electric cars and trucks. And in Italy: “Electrified Roads Power Your EV While You Drive”. www.popularmechanics.com 6/17/22.  In this case, in Milan, inductive coils under the asphalt transfer energy to on-vehicle receivers.  Also: “Study Conceptualizes Energy-efficient, Wireless-charging Roads”. www.cleantechnica.com 7/26/22.  And “Global Electrified Road for Electric Vehicle Charging Market Report 2022”. www.businesswire.com 11/30/22.

Emerging Climate Technologies, as seen by global management consultant McKinsey Sustainability. “Innovating to Net Zero: An Executive’s Guide to Climate Technology”. 10/28/21. www.mckinsey.com  The article lays out 5 areas of considerable promise: Electrifying Transportation, Buildings, and Industry; Launching the Green Revolution in Agriculture; Remaking the Power Grid to Supply Green Electricity; Delivering on the Promise of Hydrogen; and Expanding Carbon Capture, Use, and Storage

Emerging Climate Technologies, as seen by Rolling Stone Magazine. “New Tech to Tackle the Climate Crisis”.  3/24/21. www.rollingstone.com  They are: Green Cement; Low-methane Cows; Hydrogen-powered Ships; Tree Corridors; Electric Passenger Planes; Floating Solar; and Tidal Energy.

Emerging Climate Technologies”, as seen by the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 11/3/20. www.unfccc.int  They include: Airborne Wind Energy; Floating Wind Systems; Floating Solar PV Systems; Wave Power Systems; Bioenergy With Carbon capture and Storage; Direct Air Capture with Carbon Storage; Green Hydrogen; Next Generation Batteries; Thermal Energy Storage; Blockchain-Distributed Technologies; Precision Agriculture; Cellular Agriculture; Electric Road Systems; Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning; Clean Steel production; and Agro-ecology.

eMethanol.  Most methanol is produced from fossil sources, such as natural gas, coal, and oil.  In contrast, eMethanol is produced from renewable sources such as recycled carbon dioxide, biogas, biomass, waste, and sewage sludge.  www.man-es.com/process-industry/campaigns/e-methanol-in-focus  A Swedish company – Liquid Wind – produces green electrofuel (eMethanol), made from biogenic carbon dioxide and renewable electricity.  This fuel can be produced at scale to meet the growing demand for fossil-free alternative fuels. www.liquidwind.se

Energy Management and Information Systems (sometimes the word “and” is omitted) (EMIS).  EMIS helps find energy waste using smart meter data.  These data are critical to achieving major reductions in energy use and to providing healthy, grid-interactive efficient buildings and energy performance transparency. “Berkeley Lab Building Efficiency Campaign Drives $95M in Annual Energy Savings”. www.newscenter.lbl.gov 10/20/20. “What Are Energy Management and Information Systems?”. www.resolutepartners.com/what-are-energy-management-and-information-systems/   Also, on www.youtube.com – “Energy Management Information Systems” (40 minutes).

Environmental Insights Explorer (EIE).  From Google. EIE uses exclusive data sources and modeling capabilities in a freely available platform to help cities and regions measure emissions sources, run analyses, and identify strategies to reduce emissions – creating a foundation for effective action. www.insights.sustainability.google   See how the City of Pittsburgh has been using EIE: “Environmental Insights Explorer”. www.pittsburghpa.gov/dcp/environmental-insights-explorer

EV Charging.  Unless electrified roads happen in a hurry, EV chargers are going to be needed soon, and in far greater numbers than has taken place so far.  The city of Shenzhen in China (pop. 12 million) has 16,000 electric buses and 22,000 electric taxis.  It also has 1800 electric vehicle chargers.  Moscow has 1000 electric buses, and is expected to have another 2200 on its streets by the end of 2023.  www.greencitizen.com 1/5/22. EV charging is beginning to appear courtesy of regional electric co-ops: “Colorado Co-op Cuts the Country in on the EV Revolution”. www.cleantechnica.com 9/22/22.  How fast is fast charging? See “Superfast EV Charging”, from ABB Terra 360. www.abb.com . Selected by TIME Magazine for inclusion in its “Best Inventions 2022” edition.  How about the idea of swapping out dead batteries instead of charging them? This is beginning to happen in Asia and Africa, where battery power has been introduced in an effort to get rid of the millions of fossil-fueled rickshaw engines. From Power Global. “Debut of the eZee Swappable Battery Module”. www.prnewswire.com 8/31/21. And www.power.global

Fusion Energy.  “Microsoft Says Commercial Use of Fusion-Produced Energy Will be Available Within 5 Years as Part of New Deal With Sam Altman-backed Helion” 5/11/23. www.msn.com  Helion Energy, in Washington State. www.helionenergy.com

Gasification.  Gasification is a process that converts carbonaceous materials, such as coal, petroleum, or biomass – such as wood – into the simpler elements carbon monoxide and hydrogen by reacting the raw material at high (395F – 535F) temperatures. The gas produced by the gasification process is often referred to as Syngas or Renewable Natural Gas (RNG). Note: “Renewable” in this context does not mean carbon-free, although the entire process of using Syngas/RNG as a replacement for fossil fuels might be considered carbon-neutral. “Canadian Company Turns Trash Into Renewable Energy”. www.energyrefuge.com 6/14/11.”Biomass Gasification – A Promising Energy Option”.

Geothermal Energy.  Mankind has probably always used some type of geothermal energy for the entirety of its existence on the planet Earth.  Finding a source of hot water at, or close to, ground level could mean an opportunity to cook, bathe, clean clothes and household items, and maybe just lie back and relax in its warmth.  Today, geothermal energy can mean anything from this old and original use all the way to deep recovery of earth’s far higher temperatures.  Or it can mean something just a few feet below the surface, where lukewarm temperatures can be amped up via the use of various chemicals and devices (heat pumps) which can absorb low-grade heat and deliver it at the needed higher temperatures. Some good sources of information on geothermal energy are www.thinkgeoenergy.com  and www.energy.gov/eere/geothermal/history-geothermal-energy-america  Also look at “Geothermal Energy is Poised for a Big Breakout”. www.vox.com . “Geothermal: Tapping Into the Million-year Energy Source Below Our Feet”. www.cleantechnica.com 7/5/22. “Everything You Need to Know About Geothermal Heat Pumps”. www.familyhandyman.com 1/3/23.  “Supercritical Geothermal Could Power Everything”. www.power-technology.com 7/5/22. “Superhot Rock Energy”. www.catf.us . “Why Super Hot Rock?”. www.altarockenergy.com

Green Aviation and Shipping Fuel From Captured CO2.  “Startup Air Company Aims Higher With Aviation Fuel”.  www.canarymedia.com 9/22/22. Jet Blue, Virgin Atlantic and other aviation firms have agreed to buy 1 billion gallons of Air Company’s sustainable aviation fuel, made from captured CO2.  www.aircompany.com  A similar product has been developed by a company called Twelve www.twelve.co .  Another type of aviation fuel, claimed by its manufacturer as being sustainable, comes from a company called Mahoney Environmental (www.mahoneyes.com) in Joliet IL. Mahoney is owned by the Finnish oil refining company Neste (www.neste.com/en)  The Mahoney/Neste aviation fuel is derived from used cooking oil, as collected from fast food franchisees, fried clam shops, and hamburger stands. Read “The Smelly, Greasy Truth About How Sustainable Aviation Fuel is Made”. www.canarymedia.com 1/12/23.

Green Building Materials and Processes: New Approaches to Structures and Paved Surfaces.  Mountains of waste around the world are being mined for processing into building materials. Such as: “10 Recycled Building Materials of the Future”. www.climatebiz.com 1/7/22.  “Top Recycled Building Materials That Are Changing the World”. www.buildgreennh.com 1/26/22. “11 Eco-friendly House Building Materials Based on Waste”. www.medium.com 1/25/17. “9 Building Materials Made Entirely From Waste Products”. www.internewx.com 12/20/17. “Using Waste as Alternative Construction Materials”. www.marsh.com 9/1/21.

Alternative Sustainable Building Materials: Papercrete”. www.arcace.ca 8/21/22.  “Seven Waste Products Being Salvaged For Your Next Construction Project”. www.buildwithrise.com/stories/waste-products-for-construction-materials 5/1/21. The waste items mentioned in this article include coffee husks, plastic water bottles, old jeans, wine corks, tree bark, recycled glass, and miscellaneous plastic scraps.  A company in Colombia – Conceptos Plasticos – recycles plastic into LEGO-like building blocks that families can use to easily construct their own homes. www.conceptosplasticos.com “These LEGO-like Recycled Plastic Bricks Create Sturdy Homes for Just $5,200. www.inhabitat.com 7/22/16.  “Plastics Could Help Build a Sustainable Future”.  www.theconversation.com 8/12/20.  To help bring down the labor costs involved in building new housing, 3D printing is being up-scaled to the level of constructing new houses and other buildings: “ICON’s ‘House Zero’ is 3D-printed with Lavacrete Walls”. www.techeblog.com 3/4/22. And “What It’s Really Like to Live in a 3D-printed Home”. www.dwell.com 5/23/22. The Dwell article involves an energy-efficient, solar-powered home.  Green concrete is CO2-enriched concrete.  Solidia Technologies of Piscataway NJ provides 2 core technologies: a sustainable cement manufacturing technology, and a sustainable concrete curing technology, that cures concrete with CO2 instead of water. www.solidiatech.com .  “Fixing Cement’s Carbon Problem” . www.canarymedia.com 11/17/22. This article lists several other stories on this subject, including in The New York Times, Bloomberg, E&E News, and Canary Media.  There’s also: “Laying the Foundation for Zero-carbon Cement”. www.mckinsey.com 5/14/20. Like concrete, steel manufacturing is a major GHG emitter.  But help is on the way: “Green Steel: Swedish Company Ships First Batch Made Without Using Coal”. www.theguardian.com 8/18/21. “Boston Metal and ArcelorMittal Take Different Routes to Green Steel”. www.cleantechnica.com 6/4/22. And “Steel Giant Comes Out Swinging Against Fossil Fuel”. www.cleantechnica.com 5/26/22.  Describes substituting green hydrogen to reduce the usage of methane (natural gas) normally used to process iron in Canada. And “Inside the Bill Gates-backed Startup Cleaning Up the Steel Industry”. www.bloomberg.com 10/6/22.  The greater volume of wood used as a building material would lessen the level of carbon-intensive materials used in construction. “Wooden Buildings Could Eliminate 106 Billion Tons of Carbon Emissions”. www.cleantechnica.com/page/5/  “New Process Yields Super Strong Recycled Wood”. www.cleantechnica.com 5/31/22. And also re. Wood: “Transparent Wood Could Be the Window of the Future”. www.usda.gov 7/29/21.  This article describes windows (the panes, not the frames) made from clear, transparent, high thermal value wood.  The decarbonizing of cities can be assisted by the type of paving materials used, as well as by the color or reflectivity of the roofs of city buildings: “Soak Up the Rain: Permeable Pavement”. www.epa.gov Permeable paved ground surfaces can help reduce rainwater runoff by infiltrating rain water and melting snow, allowing it to seep through the surface down to underlying layers of soil and gravel. Permeable pavements can also help filter out pollutants that contribute to water pollution. Also: “Cities Need New Types of Pavement Capable of Absorbing a Flood. This Team Has a Customized Recipe”. www.anthropocenemagazine.com. 5/31/22. In addition to pavement permeability, people involved with climate action in cities should also be aware of pavement reflectiveness.  Those big black asphalt parking lots at the regional mall or nearby industrial park are heating up the planet as well.  When short  wave light radiation hits a black or dark surface, it is converted to long wave heat radiation.  So as a part of the fight to cool the planet, white or otherwise reflective surfaces should always be the first choice.  This goes for roof surfaces as well as ground coverings.  See “Streetbond” at www.streetbond.com . Streetbond’s reflective coating is a paint for asphalt that keeps pavement, and our atmosphere, cooler by reflecting incoming solar rays back into space. Also: “Can White Roofs Help Cool World’s Warming Cities?”. www.preventionweb.net  3/7/18.

Green Concrete (GC).  “Cement That Can Build the Cities of the Future” 3/7/23. www.thecooldown.com  Describes the manufacturing of cement using microalgae – from the ocean –  instead of burning limestone from quarries.  “Cities of the Future May be Built With Algae-grown Limestone” 6/23/22. www.colorado.edu

Green Hydrogen.  Hydrogen is considered the ideal fuel by many for its clean-burning qualities.  The only emission when hydrogen is burned is water.  But hydrogen is only considered to be Green if it is produced using fuel sources that are free of GHG emissions. “What is Green Hydrogen and Why Do We Need It?”  www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/12/what-is-green-hydrogen-expert-explains-benefits/  “Hydrogen Can Secure the Planet’s Energy Supply”. www.power-technology.com 1/10/22.  “Monster Clean Hydrogen Hub Rising in Northeast US”. www.cleantechnica.com 8/28/22. “Tiny Mass. Startup Cooks Up Big, Green Hydrogen Plan”. www.cleantechnica.com 7/27/22.  In Australia: “Startup’s Hydrogen Breakthrough May Give New Life to Coal Plants” (without burning coal, of course) www.bloomberg.com 8/18/22.  “GEH2: The Zero-emission Hydrogen Power Generator”. www.eo-dev.com   And re. Hydrogen as a fuel for vehicles: “Hydrogen Fuel Cell News for Passenger Ferries & Mining Trucks”. www.cleantechnica.com 7/6/22.  What is the best scale for producing green hydrogen?  This topic is still undergoing discussion. “Go Big or Start Small: Picking the Right Scale For Green Hydrogen”. 5/4/23. www.canarymedia.com  This article looks at two green hydrogen startups.  One is large-scale: Electric Hydrogen. www.eh2.com.  Based in Devens MA.  The other is small-scale: Ohmium www.ohmium.com  In Incline Village NV and in India.

“Top 10 Green Technologies That Give Us Hope for a Sustainable Future” (Just enter the title in Google search)

“The 5 Green Technology Inventions to Look For”.  www.rubbishplease.co.uk

“5 New Green Technologies Coming in 2022”.  www.bbvaopenmind.com 4/11/22.

Heat Island Abatement.  Building masses and pavements retain heat in a city during the warm months.  Street murals created with solar-reflective paint are cooling down L.A. “Neighborhood Used Revolutionary Heat-Reflective Paint to Cool its Temperatures”. 3/16/23. www.thecooldown.com

Heat Pumps.  The term heat pump is something of a misnomer, since a heat pump both heats and cools.  In its heating mode, a heat pump is an electrically powered device that uses a circulating chemical called a refrigerant to remove heat from the outdoor winter air, or from the earth, using a set of coils. It then delivers this relatively low-temperature heat to an indoor set of coils, where that heat is upgraded to a level sufficient to heat the room, the home, the commercial space, etc. During warm weather the heat pump reverses the refrigerant’s flow, absorbing indoor heat and transporting it to the outdoor air or into the ground.  The heat pump, running on green, renewable electricity, is widely viewed as the worldwide replacement for fossil-fueled space heating and cooling.  There are heat pump water heaters as well. Some further background on heat pumps: “In Maine, Heat Pumps Are Proving Themselves Even Against Extreme Cold”. www.energynews.us  7/27/22.  “Heat Pumps Are Now Required For New Homes in Washington State”.  www.canarymedia.com 11/8/22.  “How Local Governments and Communities Are Taking Action to Get Fossil Fuels Out of Buildings”. www.rmi.org 8/9/22. New York City Local Law 154: “Local Law 154: NYC’s All-electric New Buildings Law”. www.urbangreencouncil.org  On 12/15/21 New York City became the largest city in the world to phase fossil fuels out of new construction.  A recent advance in the area of air-source heat pumps is the window-fitted heat pump manufactured by Gradient.  This could be especially effective in eliminating the need for fossil-fueled HVAC equipment in multi-family buildings in older city neighborhoods.  www.gradientcomfort.com  Gradient was the 2022 winner of the Fast Company consumer products award. It was also selected by TIME Magazine for inclusion in its “Best Inventions 2022” edition. And with regard to an advanced version of ground-source heat pumps: “Dandelion Energy Raises $70M to Take Geothermal Heat Pumps Mainstream”. www.canarymedia.com 11/21/22. By drilling hundreds of feet into the ground, Dandelion taps a secure reservoir of heat in the winter, and in summer, it removes heat from the building to cool it. www.dandelionenergy.com .

Hybrid Green Technologies.  Up until now – on this website, anyway – we’ve been looking at individual green technologies.  But now it really begins to get interesting, and highly creative as well, as we begin to look at how these various technologies can function in partnership with each other. In combinations of two and even three.  Start to think where you can splice together innovative combinations like this in your city.  “Solar-Hydro-Wind Combination”. www.sinovoltaics.com . “Hydro-Floating Solar Hybrid at Sirindhorn Dam, EGAT” (Thailand). www.youtube.com.  “Floating Power Plant – Invest in the Future”. www.floatingpowerplant.com  This hybrid combines wind and wave power in Denmark.  “10 Findings on the Growth of Hybrid Power Plants”. www.renewableenergyworld.com 5/10/22.  “Renewable Hybrid Energy Systems as a Game Changer in India”. www.mckinsey.com 9/10/19. “USAID, NREL Help Ghana Develop First Hydro-Solar Plant in West Africa”. www.renewableenergyworld.com 6/4/22. “EDP Inaugurates Floating Solar Park in Alqueva Pumped Storage Reservoir”. www.renewableenergyworld.com 7/26/22. (Alqueva is in Portugal). “Wind and Solar Are Better Together”. www.scientificamerican.com 12/5/16. Building turbines and photovoltaics at the same location can reduce grid and battery costs and level out power supply.  “Goldwind Gullen Solar and Wind Farm”. (near Sydney, Australia) www.balanceservicesgroup.com.au  “Hybrid Home: Solar & Wind Renewable Energy Systems”. www.buildwithrise.com 6/16/20.  “French Startup Reveals Rooftop System With PV Panels, Mini Wind Turbines”. www.pv-magazine-india.com 11/16/22.  This article describes a hybrid rooftop renewable energy system that combines solar with vertical axis wind turbines.  “PG&E, Energy Vault Plan Largest US Utility-scale Battery, Green Hydrogen Long-duration Storage Project”. www.utilitydive.com 1/6/23.  “LAVO Green Energy Hydrogen Battery”. www.good-design.org/projects/lavo-green-energy-hydrogen-battery/  The LAVO Green Energy Storage System, from Australia, acts as a solar sponge, integrating with rooftop solar to capture and store renewable energy, in the form of green hydrogen, for use when it is needed. It is the world’s first integrated hybrid hydrogen battery that combines with rooftop solar to deliver a sustainable, reliant, and renewable green energy source for residential and commercial properties. The system works by using electrolysis to split water into oxygen and hydrogen.  It was selected by TIME Magazine for inclusion in its “Best Inventions 2022” edition. See also the hybrid solar & wind rooftop systems developed by Ibis Power, called PowerNest. “Innovative Renewable Energy Solution on Rooftop in Eindhoven” (in The Netherlands). 3/8/23.  www.thesocialhub.co and www.ibispower.eu

Insulation From Hemp.  The product is Hempitecture – building insulation made from hemp. www.hempitecture.com  It is a plant-based insulating product for walls, floors and ceilings.

Internet of Things (IoT). The IoT describes the network – “things” – that are embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies for the purpose of collecting and exchanging data with other devices and systems over the internet. IoT is a form of AI.  On a city scale, AI can improve overall energy efficiency by incorporating data from smart meters and the IoT (computing devices embedded in everyday objects that enable them to send and receive data) to forecast and predict city energy demand.  This would help city utility power providers to optimize energy production, effectively reducing their impact on the climate. “5 Ways Cities Can Use Emerging Technologies to Fight Climate Change”. www.weforum.org 4/5/19. “A Review of Using IoT for Energy Efficient Buildings and Cities”. www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/15/16/5991 8/18/22.  “How the Internet of Things Will Help Fight Climate Change”. www.forbes.com 11/5/19. And “IoT Can Guide Climate Solutions”. www.worldwarzero.com 6/7/22.

Microgrids.  (Also, Minigrids and Nanogrids).  A microgrid is a self-sufficient energy system that serves a specific geographic footprint, such as a college campus, hospital complex, business center, neighborhood, or downtown area.  The terms minigrid and nanogrid are also in use, but no one has as of yet issued a precise and widely accepted definition of where one picks up and the other leaves off.  Within a microgrid (or minigrid or nanogrid) are one or more kinds of distributed energy – solar panels, wind turbines, combined heat & power units, hydrogen-fuel generators – that produce its power.  Many newer microgrids contain batteries or some other form of energy storage, and perhaps EV charging stations as well. A microgrid may be set up to operate only in “island” mode (not connected to the larger municipal or regional grid), or connected to it as a backup power source. The following readings should be helpful: “The Power of Microgrids in the Global Energy Transition”. www.rmi.org/power-microgrids-global-energy-transition/   “What the Rise of Local Energy Means For Businesses, Institutions and Communities”. www.microgridknowledge.com/distributed-energy-microgrids/  In Australia: “Peel Business Park – Nambeelup Kaadadjan – The Microgrid”. www.developmentwa.com The Peel Business Park has a 1.2MW solar array and a 2.5MWh battery storage system. “Getting Onto the New Grid in Greater Boston”. www.nextcity.org 12/7/18. “Community Microgrid Alternatives to Gas Peaker Plants”. www.cleancoalition.org  “Community Microgrid a First For Wisconsin”. www.tdworld.com 11/15/22.  A company called Scale Microgrids provides some examples of how microgrids can play a role in a local government’s power system, providing a higher level of energy independence, a lower carbon footprint, lower operating costs, and 100% financing of the microgrid itself.  Scale has worked with city governments, public school agencies, water districts, tribal lands, and other public entities. www.scalemicrogrids.com

Mineralization.  Mineralization is the transformation of carbon dioxide into a solid mineral. It is one form of storage of captured carbon.  This is probably not something that your local city government is going to ever become greatly involved in, unless it has some great underground caverns just waiting to be filled up.  But it has become one of the talking points in the larger conversation of what to do with carbon if we are successful in capturing it in large volumes.  Because once carbon has been turned to a rock-like substance, it is not ever likely to leak back into the atmosphere. “Making Minerals – How Growing Rocks Can Help Reduce Carbon Emissions”. www.usgs.gov 3/8/19.  “Carbon Mineralization Pathways for Carbon Capture, Storage and Utilization”.  www.nature.com 2/26/21. “Setting Carbon Management in Stone”. www.news.mit.edu/2022/setting-carbon-management-stone-0317  “Mineralization: Turning Carbon Into a Mineral That Can be Permanently Stored Away”. www.shopify.com/about/environment/sustainability-fund/mineralization  “Invert and CarbonCure Sign the World’s Largest Purchase Agreement for Carbon Credits to Store CO2 Through Carbon Mineralization”. www.yahoo.com 4/12/22.

Mobility as a Service (MaaS). MaaS integrates various forms of transport and transport-related services into a single, comprehensive, and on-demand mobility service.  MaaS offers end-users the added value of accessing mobility through a single application, and a single payment channel.  Transport options included in a MaaS program include public transport, walking, cycling, car & bike sharing, taxi, car rental, and others. Its overall purpose is to reduce the travel miles that would otherwise be covered by private, single-person, gasoline-powered automobile travel. “What is Mobility as a Service?”. www.geotab.com 11/9/18.  “Mobility as a Service”. www.urbanismnext.org/technologies/mobility-as-a-service  There is also a Wikipedia entry for “Mobility as a Service”.

Nuclear Power.  Nuclear power (nuclear fission), as it has traditionally participated in our national power grid, appears to be dying and close to dead.  The nuclear industry, and its supporters who believe that nuclear energy can play a meaningful role in decarbonizing the planet, however, aren’t quite so sure.  The industry is now hanging its hat on the SMR – the Small Modular Reactor. The brand name attached to the SMR is NuScale.  NuScale’s SMR is the first and so far only small modular reactor to receive design approval from the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.  Further, it has been selected by TIME Magazine for inclusion in its “Best Inventions 2022” edition.  In 2022, no less than the IPCC – the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change – issued its support for nuclear power: “IPCC Report Finds Key Role For Nuclear in Climate Change Mitigation”, www.nei.org/news/2022/ipcc-report-finds-key-role-for-nuclear  The respected and influential Clean Air Task Force is also on board: “Advanced Nuclear Energy”. www.catf.us/work/advanced-nuclear-energy/  Mainstream media have been following this story as well, and not necessarily in a negative manner: “Small Modular Nuclear Reactor Passes Biggest Hurdle Yet”. www.forbes.com 5/15/18.  “Nuclear Energy Gets Boost as Small Reactor Design Certified For Use in U.S.”. www.fortune.com 1/21/23. And “Small Nuclear Reactors: What to Know About the New Technology”. www.fastcompany.com 8/10/22.  But there is plenty of opposition to SMR technology on the other side of the aisle: From the Union of Concerned Scientists: “ ‘Advanced’ Isn’t Always Better”. www.ucsusa.org/resources/advanced-isnt-always-better 3/18/21. From the National Academy of Sciences: “Nuclear Waste From Small Modular Reactors”. 5/31/22. And from the Sierra Club (North Carolina chapter): “Is There a Place For Small Modular Nuclear?”. www.sierraclub.org 5/12/22. Each NuScale SMR generates about 77MW, and can power about 60,000 homes.  There are currently plans to build one in Idaho. Arguments brought forth in support of SMRs include; they use less radioactive material; are easier to cool; and can be factory-built.  However, there is still no solution to the waste issue. And, of course, if you follow any media at all, in late 2022 came news of something of a breakthrough in nuclear fusion – the long-sought Holy Grail of endless clean energy. “Fusion Energy Breakthrough by US Scientists Boosts Clean Power Hopes”. www.ft.com And “Fusion Breakthrough Thrills Physicists, But Won’t Power Your Home Soon”. www.canarymedia.com 12/13/22.

Pyrolysis. Pyrolysis is one of the technologies available to convert biomass to an intermediate liquid product that can be refined to hydrocarbon biofuels, oxygenate fuel additives, and petrochemical replacements. Biomass pyrolysis is usually conducted at a temperature of or above 500C (930F), with no oxygen present.  Because of this lack of oxygen, combustion does not occur.  Instead, the biomass thermally decomposes into combustible gases and biochar.  The gas can be referred to as another form of syngas, or renewable natural gas (RNG).  RNG is not without greenhouse gases, but if it is produced in a green manner, and used only in substitution for fossil fuels, it can be considered a carbon-neutral fuel. Also entering into the carbon-neutral equation, however, are emissions from gas pipelines, delivery vehicles, and a number of other carbon sources. Clearly, “green” is a relative term. “Review on Green Technology Pyrolysis for Plastic Waste”. www.researchgate.net Nov. 2020.  “Pyrolysis as an Environmentally Friendly and Cost-effective Waste Tyres Treatment Technology”. www.tdplant.com .  You might also have a look at the PNNL Facility, Richland WA.  The company involved is InEnTec www.inentec.com The company operates a Plasma Enhanced Melter Technology (PEM) facility, developed by MIT and the USDOE National Labs.  Also, see Sims Resource Renewal, in Australia. www.simsrr.com  InEnTec states on its website that it “provides solutions to economically and responsibly turn the world’s waste into valuable green products, fuels, and energy.”

Rainwater: Its Capture, Treatment and Recycling.  Rainwater is a legitimate climate issue, as climate change has resulted in some places getting too much of it, and other places, not enough.  Some rainwater issues to ponder, based on the recent experiences of the city and county of Los Angeles: “Column: Water, Water Everywhere, and L.A. Just Lets it Go to Waste”. www.latimes.com 8/14/22. “Accelerate Resilience LA”. www.acceleratela.org  “LA County Supervisors OK Stormwater – Capture Projects for Measure W Funding”. From the L.A. Daily News. www.dailynews.com 9/15/21.  See LA’s “Stormwater Capture Master Plan” pdf, from the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power”. www.treepeople.org Article summary: Capturing and using stormwater on-site can offset potable water demand.  Capturing and infiltrating stormwater into subsurface groundwater aquifers increases local groundwater reserves.

www.wastetoenergysystems.com  “Renewable Energy From Solid Waste in a Sustainable Environment”. www.eprenewable.com 5/23/22. Re. the Pottstown Sustainable Energy Park: www.sanatogapost.com/2020/12/26/state-grants-local-redevelopment/  Gasification and the term Pyrolysis are sometimes used interchangeably, although there are differences between the two technologies.  For some help in this area, see: “Difference Between Pyrolysis and Gasification”. www.differencebetween.com 8/29/19.

River-generated Power, other than traditional hydropower. Electricity generated by subsurface generating equipment from ORPC, Portland ME. Their product is called the RivGen Power System. “New Resource for Microgrids – River Currents” www.microgridknowledge.com 1/9/23. www.orpc.co  The company’s website also indicates that it is involved in tidal power as well.

Kinetic Energy From Floor or Sidewalk Tiles.  “High tech Tiles Generate Energy”.  2/13/23. www.thecooldown.com  From Pavegen Tiles. www.pavegen.com

Smart Lawn Watering and Maintenance.  Cities and other entities with expanses of lawn and grass –  athletic fields, golf courses, cemeteries, etc. – should know about this company. OtO Lawn. www.otolawn.com  Its solar-powered, long-range, 360-degree nozzle delivers water, fertilizer, and pest-repelling solutions to green spaces. Claims to reduce water usage up to 50%. Selected by TIME Magazine for inclusion in its “Best Inventions 2022” edition.

By now just about everyone on the planet has some familiarity with solar energy systems as they exist on the rooftops of homes and other buildings, as well as in the form of large solar farms. So this website is skipping right over these two forms of solar, and going on to applications that are less familiar to most people.   Earlier in this website’s section on Emerging Technologies there is a “Hybrid Green Technologies” category which includes the use of solar energy devices used in partnership with other green power systems. The category we are now introducing is more about solar, not so much used with other technologies, but located in unusual or unexpected locales and situations.

Solar Farms on Closed Landfills.  This is not exactly new ground, but if you are not familiar with this method of gaining new life from dumps, then you should read these: “How to Turn Trash Into Treasure: Put Solar Panels Over Landfills”. www.canarymedia.com 11/30/21.  And “The Future of Landfills is Bright”. www.rmi.org 2021.

Solar on the Side of Highways. “Attach Solar Panels to Highway Noise Barriers in Lexington”. www.pvbuzz.com 6/27/22.  “Massachusetts Plans to Use Solar Panels as Highway Sound Barriers in Suburban Boston”. www.pvbuzz.com 12/10/21.

Solar Thermal in Industrial Applications.  “Solar Thermal’s Massive But Under-appreciated Decarbonization Potential”. www.solarflux.co 6/7/22 

Community Solar a.k.a. Solar Gardens.  This is something like a mini solar farm, usually located in or close to a neighborhood location, and often owned and managed by a community residents organization.  Take a look at the “Community Solar” entry at Wikipedia.  It looks at community solar operations in California, Colorado, Florida, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Utah, Vermont, Washington DC, and in the UK.  In the Cape Cod town of Brewster MA, Brewster residents founded the first cooperatively run solar garden in that state.  Owned and operated by the Brewster Community Solar Garden Cooperative Inc. www.brewstercommunitysolargarden.com  Not far from Brewster, along the Mass. South Coast area, is the Sippican Community Solar Garden, in the town of Marion.  www.sippicancommunitysolargarden.com  The companies involved in getting Sippican up and running are: My Generation Energy www.mygenerationenergy.com; Suntility Electric www.suntilityelectric.com; and Enphase Energy www.enphase.com . Some further community solar sources: “How to Scale Roof Top Community Solar in Cities”. www.canarymedia.com Dec.’22; “US Community Solar Market Faces a Near-term Peak”. www.woodmac.com 7/27/21; “Community-scale Solar”. www.rmi.org/category/electricity/community-scale-solar/ ; and, re. financing community solar when there are income and credit restraints: “Community Solar Can Help Revitalize Communities”. www.canarymedia.com 10/3/22.

Islands of Green Energy. “Denmark’s $34 Billion Green Energy Island”. www.youtube.com/watch?v=RFtDgw2tgW8  and “The World’s Largest Floating Solar Farm” located near Shanghai, China. www.youtube.com/watch?v=DAEGNL56sEM 

Building-Integrated PhotoVoltaics (BIPV). BIPVs are photovoltaic materials that are used to replace conventional building materials in parts of the building envelope such as the roof, skylights, or facades.  Can be used in new construction or building retrofits. Sometimes called BAPV – Building-Applied PhotoVoltaics.  See Wikipedia: “Building-integrated Photovoltaics”.  Other BIPV info sources: “Platform for BIPV Solutions With Click & Go Technology”. www.solarimpulse.com Nov. 2022.  bipv.world is a Dutch company specializing in BIPV software. “Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV)”. www.technopedia.com 

AgriVoltaics.  Agrivoltaics combines the use of solar farm-types of solar arrays located on active farmland.  Agrivoltaic installations are also found in areas otherwise devoted to bee-keeping, and where livestock are grazed.  The combining of solar panels with the growing of fruit and/or vegetables provides the farmer with two sources of income on his or her land: edible goods and kilowatt hours of electricity. Serious R&D in this area has been going on for a while now at some major U.S. universities, including the University of Massachusetts/Amherst, the University of Arizona, and Oregon State University.  One of the premier private examples of agrivoltaics is Jack’s Solar Garden in Boulder CO. “Largest Agrivoltaic Research Project in U.S. Advances Renewable Energy While Empowering Local Farmers”. www.solarpowerworldonline.com 6/10/21.  Concerned that erecting solar panels above a field of beets or squash is going to stunt their growth?  Think again: “Video: How Solar Panels and Crops Can Thrive Side-by-side” www.canarymedia.com 11/21/22. “Agrivoltaics Proves Mutually Beneficial Across Food, Water, Energy Nexus”. www.phys.org/news/2019-09-agrivoltaics-mutually-beneficial-food-energy.html “Solar PV Power Potential is Greatest Over Croplands”. www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-47803-3  Our own research on agrivoltaics has found that there is a wide range of crops that grow very well while beneath the partial shade of solar panels.  And there are those that provide an even better harvest when grown this way.  And the solar panels themselves often produce power at a higher than normal level, as they become slightly cooled by the moisture created by the transpiration of growing vegetable matter.

Floatovoltaics  (FPV) This is what it sounds like: a solar farm floating on a body of water.  Sounds radical, but it’s a field that is beginning to experience some real movement.  Solar panels are floated on various versions of styrofoam rafts.  By being situated on water, they are not competing with other uses for land. In some situations the body of water is a drinking water reservoir. In others it might be the widened area of a river originally designed to be the holding area for a dam fitted out as a hydroelectric generating facility.  A couple of the secondary benefits put forth in favor of FPV include, in the cases of reservoirs, less evaporation, and less algal growth due to less sunlight reaching the water.  And the heightened efficiency of the solar panels themselves is frequently mentioned. Learn more about FPV and how it might be fitted into your community’s Climate Action Plan: “Why Floating Solar Has an Important Role to Play in the Energy Transition”. www.woodmac.com 6/8/21.  “California’s River Canals”. www.pvbuzz.com (FPV on canal surfaces). “Ciel & Terre” ( French company doing pioneering work in FPV): www.ciel-et-terre.net . “Floating Solar Panels Could Unlock Clean Power Without Wasting Land”. www.canarymedia.com 12/15/22.  In 2016 a company called Lightsource Renewable Energy successfully completed and connected Europe’s largest floating solar farm, installing 6.3MW on the Queen Elizabeth II Reservoir near London. “Floating Solar Powering Thames Water”. www.lightsource.com/uk/projects/queen-elizabeth-ii-reservoir-solar-project/ 

Flat-on-the-Ground Solar Panel Installation.  Solar panels, in the northern hemisphere, are considered to be installed at the best possible angle when they are oriented full south, at a pitch of local latitude plus a few degrees. The further north you go, the steeper the pitch ought to be.  The further south, the shallower the pitch. And south of the equator, in the reverse.   At the equator, panels would probably be best arranged flat on the ground.  There has recently been a claim made that when it comes to generating the greatest amount of solar electricity per acre of land, solar panels everywhere should be installed flat on the ground.  Learn more about this at www.erthos.com/earth-mount-solar-pv-technology-assessment-summmary  Also see “A Firsthand Look at a California Solar Farm With ‘Earth-Mounted’ Panels”. 4/18/23. www.canarymedia.com  Flat, or earth-mounted solar panels arrangements are said to reduce solar development costs by 20%.

Multi-Family Solar.  “Unconventional Way For Apartment Dwellers to Save Money on Their Energy Bills”.  4/22/23. www.thecooldown.com  Re. the SolShare System from Australian startup Allume Energy.  Allows sharing of solar energy between multiple units, and distributing any excess solar power back to the grid. From www.allumeenergy.com/us/how-it-works/ 

Solar Panels Orientation.  In the northern hemisphere, solar panels are normally arrayed along an east-west line, and tilted back at an angle best suited to maximizing solar gain year-round at your particular latitude.  (And the reverse in the southern hemisphere.)  There are those who are now making a case for arranging panels along a north-south line.  Instead of being angled back some degree, they should be installed standing straight up vertically.  And for this to work, the panels themselves should not have just one photovoltaic surface, but should be what is termed bifacial – able to generate electricity from both sides of the panel. Curious? “Models Show That Installing Solar Panels Vertically Reduces the Need For Gas Imports and Electricity Storage Systems”. www.pvbuzz.com 7/23/22.  This article asserts that this system is better suited to agrivoltaics than the traditional method of setting up solar panels.

Seasonal Solar Thermal Storage.  When there’s an abundance of sunshine during the summer, and not all that much in the winter, and you want solar thermal heating in your home, the answer is seasonal storage.  Heat enough water using solar thermal panels during the summer to carry you through the winter. This is what is going on at the master planned community of Drake Landing, in Okotoks, Alberta, Canada.  Drake Landing is the world’s first residential subdivision utilizing district heating, with the heat being provided, at community scale, by solar collectors. (When solar energy is accumulated in thermal rather than electric form, the correct term is solar collectors, not panels.) “Drake Landing Solar Community: Financial Summary and Lessons Learned”. www.dlsc.ca/reports/swc2019-0049-Wong.pdf  There was a home in Waltham MA that was fitted out, in either the late 1960s or early 1970s, for seasonal solar thermal storage, by designating a large area of the home’s basement for use as an insulated tank that held 16,000 gallons of water.  As the summer months proceeded, site-built solar collectors on the home’s roof raised the water temperatures in the basement tank, reaching a point in the fall where they were able to heat the home, which had been fitted out with a heat distribution system capable of providing adequate space heat at lower than standard temperatures.  As the temperature at the top of the tank dropped below that which was sufficient to provide adequate heat all by itself, there was a small electric  heater in place  to get the water up to the needed temperature level. This system provided about 95% of the home’s space heating needs each winter, as well as nearly all of its domestic hot water. The home and its solar specifics are described in the book SOLAR HEATED BUILDINGS OF NORTH AMERICA; 120 OUTSTANDING EXAMPLES, by William A. Shurcliff (Brick House Publishing Company, Harrisville NH).  At this moment, a copy of this book is available online at Amazon.

Solar Panels Produced On-site. From just sand.  See Terra Box.  Terra Box is a process that turns sand into fully operational solar panels in an on-site mini-factory. The company: Maana Electric, in Luxemburg. “Maana Electric’s TerraBox Makes Solar Panels Out of Sand and Electricity”. www.canadiancor.com and www.maanaelectric.com  The cost of producing solar panels in this way is said to cost much less than purchasing them.

Solar Shingles – Mass Produced.  Manufactured by GAF Energy, which is a spinoff of Standard Industries, the world’s largest roofing materials business. www.gaf.energy/timberline-solar/   A winner of Fast Company’s 2022 World Changing Ideas Awards, Energy category.  Also selected for inclusion in TIME Magazine’s “Best Inventions 2022” edition. Video: “GAF Energy’s Timberline Solar Shingles” www.youtube.com/watch?v=cpCngw-30ec 

Night-time Solar Power.  Sounds like a scam, but maybe not. “Australian Researchers Announce Major Breakthrough That Could Lead to Solar Power at Night”. www.pvbuzz.com 5/18/22.

Super-Efficient (close to 50%) Solar Cells. “Inverted Metamorphic Multi-junction (IMM) Cells”. www.youtube.com 

Perovskite. (ABX3). It is believed from numerous credible sources that this material can push solar’s maximum efficiency from 20% up to around 45%. Swift Solar. “Solar 3.0: This New Technology Could Change Everything”. www.youtube.com . “Perovskite Solar Cells” www.energy.gov/eere/solar/perovskite-solar-cells  And “Perovskites Can Make Solar Panels More Efficient Than Silicone Alone”. www.canarymedia.com 10/19/22.

Organic Solar Cells, aka Organic PhotoVoltaic Cells (OPV).  OPV cells are incredibly powerful when it comes to absorbing sunlight.  It is a solar cell technology that is rapidly increasing in terms of technological advancements and popularity.  Advantages of OPV are: very light, can cover a large area, and has low manufacturing costs. OPV are thinly filmed solar cells which have the potential to store much larger amounts of solar energy than other solar technologies. www.renewableenergyhub.co.uk/main/solar-panels/organic-solar-cells/  “Everything You Need to Know About Organic Solar Cells”. www.solarreviews.com 3/10/22.

SolarAPP+.  SolarAPP+ is a free software program that streamlines and significantly shortens the solar permitting process. Can save several thousand dollars per install. It is a web-based platform that automates solar permitting for local governments and other authorities having jurisdiction. “Streamlining Solar Permitting With SolarAPP+”. www.energy.gov  and www.solarapp.nrel.gov  And looked at from the solar installer’s viewpoint: “SolarAPP+ is Revolutionizing Solar in the U.S.” www.dealerstore.freedomforever.com 

Solar Panel Recycling.  Solar panels are projected to have a working life of between 25 and 30 years.  At the rate that solar panels are being produced and installed around the globe, that will result in a huge glut of materials coming into the waste and/or recycling markets in the near to mid-term future. “What Will We Do With All Those Solar Panels When Their Useful Life is Over?”. www.ensia.com/features/solar-recycling/  And a company that already well into helping to create a circular economy for solar panels: “Solar Cycle”. www.solarcycle.us

Solid State Hydrogen Storage.  From Plasma Kinetics, an Arizona company. www.plasmakinetics.com  PK is an energy research focused on hydrogen capture and solid-state hydrogen storage.  It claims that its technology provides the means for zero-carbon hydrogen, via its unique ability to filter out hydrogen from exhaust gases “like a sponge” with low temperatures and pressure reducing cost.  Captured hydrogen is then contained indefinitely, releasing with light on demand. PK claims an economical and safe transport, storage, and infrastructure system, which scales to fit the power demand of any application: an electrical power grid, hydrogen fuel cells, EVs, or hydrogen-injected diesel trucks. See also “Solid State Hydrogen” at Youtube.com and at www.undecidedmf.com/episodes/forget-solid-state-batteries-solid-hydrogen-explained